18 THE HEALTH BENEFITS OF PARKS AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPACTS This effect has been exacerbated by densification as cities have more impervious surfaces and less greenery to provide shade and absorb heat (Heidt and Neef 2008; Myint et al 2010). As temperatures rise in urban areas, so too does the demand for, and cost of, electricity, with some 5 to 10 percent of electricity demand related to increased urban temperatures (Akbari, Rosenfeld, and Taha 1990; Akbari, Pomerantz, and Taha, 2001). The presence of a developed tree canopy can counteract some of the temperature increases caused by this urban heat-island effect (Akbari, Pomerantz, and Taha 2001). Additionally, decreasing the amount of impervious surface area (e.g., pavement) and increasing the amount of grassy and vegetative surfaces can contribute to decreases in temperature as well (Taha 1997). A case study of four sites in Merseyside, UK, found that among several indicators of ecological performance (surface temperature, carbon sequestration and storage, hydrology, and biodiversity), more affluent areas performed better across each indicator because of higher quantities of green space and tree cover (Whitford, Ennos, and Handley 2001). Critically, much of this literature looks at urban green space broadly, including public and private spaces. Climate change has also led to an increase in the numbers of adverse weather events. Thus, discussion has increased about mitigation and adaptation to reduce the risks associated with such events. Parks and green spaces can serve as natural ways to increase urban hazard resiliency. Green space can serve a crucial role in protecting against flood risk by reducing runoff. Case studies of parks that act as natural infrastructure show that these spaces can improve water filtration and curb runoff (Chadsey and Grenfell 2020). Surfaces such as pavement and gravel do not absorb water, whereas soil, grassy areas, and wetlands act as natural absorbent materials for runoff water during storms (Depietri, Renaud, and Kallis 2012; Taha 1997). Disaster Planning and Social Resilience Public green space is critical for improving environmental health but can also support building more socially resilient communities as they foster social connections and neighborhood ties, which are particularly key for disaster planning and recovery. Research examining the psychological connection humans have with nature after a natural disaster finds that people seek resilience through green spaces (Campbell et al. 2016; Tidball 2012). Disasters cause physical damage but also cause psychological damage and trauma, strain social connections, and damage livelihoods. Faced with increased social and psychological strain, emerging research indicates people seek out parks and green spaces as restorative resources (Campbell et al. 2016; Wolf and Rozance 2013). As the COVID-19 pandemic has
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