RESOURCE GUIDE FOR PLANNING, DESIGNING AND IMPLEMENTING GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE IN PARKS
II | NATIONAL RECREATION AND PARK ASSOCIATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Great Urban Parks Campaign: Green Infrastructure in Underserved Communities is a partnership between the National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA) and the American Planning Association (APA), with support from the Low Impact Development Center Inc. (LID Center). The purpose is to improve environmental and social outcomes in underserved communities through green infrastructure in urban, regional and municipal parks. Additional resources on designing and implementing green stormwater management projects in urban parks to improve equity can be found by visiting NRPA’s Great Urban Parks Campaignwebpage. Available materials include briefing papers, webinars and case studies focused on the integration of green infrastructure stormwater management in parks in a manner that improves social equity, environmental quality and economic benefit. This resource guide was prepared by the LID Center for NRPA. NRPA would like to acknowledge the contributions of: • Jill Bankston, County of San Diego Parks and Recreation • Emily Clifton, LID Center • Richard Dolesh, NRPA • Robert Goo, Environmental Protection Agency • Jennifer Henaghan, APA • Shaun O’Rourke, Rhode Island Infrastructure Bank • Serda Ozbenian, NRPA • Emma Prindle, LID Center • Lori Robertson, NRPA • David Rouse, APA • Rebecca Wickline, NRPA This work was made possible by the generous support of The JPB Foundation. Front cover photo credit: Tom Fox/SWA Graphic Design: Kim Mabon, Creative By Design
GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE RESOURCE GUIDE | III INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 1 OVERVIEW...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1 HOW TO USE THIS GUIDE........................................................................................................................................................................................... 2 GREEN STORMWATER INFRASTRUCTURE................................................................................................................................................................... 3 COMMON GREEN STORMWATER INFRASTRUCTURE PRACTICES FOR PARK SETTINGS.................................................................................. 4 PRE-PLANNING AND ASSESSMENT...............................................................................................................................................................................7 PARK CONTEXT..............................................................................................................................................................................................................7 SITE CONSIDERATIONS...............................................................................................................................................................................................9 FUNDING CONSIDERATIONS.....................................................................................................................................................................................13 BEST PRACTICES............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 15 SITE DESIGN................................................................................................................................................................................................................17 BEST PRACTICE: INVOLVE A MULTI-DISCIPLINARY TEAM.............................................................................................................................. 18 BEST PRACTICE: LISTEN TO AND EMPOWER THE COMMUNITY.................................................................................................................... 19 BEST PRACTICE: UNDERSTAND AND COMMUNICATE THE BENEFITS...........................................................................................................21 BEST PRACTICE: DESIGN FOR EQUITY AND INCLUSIVITY............................................................................................................................. 22 BEST PRACTICE: ESTABLISH A DEMONSTRATION PROJECT.......................................................................................................................... 24 BEST PRACTICE: SUPPORT PUBLIC HEALTH....................................................................................................................................................25 BEST PRACTICE: PLAN FOR CONNECTIVITY AND ACCESSIBILITY................................................................................................................ 26 BEST PRACTICE: ENSURE DESIGNS ARE “BIDDABLE” AND “BUILDABLE”..................................................................................................27 SITE CONSTRUCTION...............................................................................................................................................................................................29 BEST PRACTICE: ENSURE PARKS STAFF AND CONTRACTORS ARE TRAINED AND EXPERIENCED IN GREEN STORMWATER INFRASTRUCTURE INSTALLATION........................................................................................................................30 BEST PRACTICE: CREATE CAREER PATHWAYS FOR LOW-INCOME AND SOCIALLY EXCLUDED COMMUNITIES.........................................................................................................................................................31 BEST PRACTICE: KEEP THE PUBLIC INFORMED AND INVOLVED DURING CONSTRUCTION.................................................................... 33 SITE MAINTENANCE AND OPERATION.................................................................................................................................................................35 BEST PRACTICE: ENSURE EFFECTIVE OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE ACTIVITIES...............................................................................36 BEST PRACTICE: ENGAGE COMMUNITY IN INSPECTION, OPERATIONS, AND MAINTENANCE.................................................................37 BEST PRACTICE: INCORPORATE GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS INTO ENVIRONMENTAL PROGRAMMING...........................................................................................................................................................38 APPENDICES: APPENDIX A: PROCESS TO COMPLETION CHECKLIST....................................................................................................................................40 APPENDIX B: ADDITIONAL RESOURCES............................................................................................................................................................ 41 ENDNOTES......................................................................................................................................................................................................................45 TABLE OF CONTENTS
IV | NATIONAL RECREATION AND PARK ASSOCIATION
GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE RESOURCE GUIDE | 1 INTRODUCTION OVERVIEW Parks have long played an integral role in community landscapes. As open green space becomes more scarce, public park agencies have new opportunity and reasons to work with other departments and agencies to utilize protected public green space in innovative ways. Designing new or existing parks to manage stormwater using green infrastructure principles is an ideal way to realize many of these benefits. Green stormwater infrastructure installations can be used to revitalize existing parks or enhance the design and functionality of new parks. Parks provide ideal opportunities for green infrastructure as they are often already highly visible, multifunctional public spaces that typically include green elements. The use of green infrastructure has increased over the last decade as knowledge of its benefits has grown. Incorporating green infrastructure into parks can bring wide-reaching improvements to neighborhoods. Focusing green infrastructure-based park development and redevelopment efforts in underserved areas where the need is often the greatest will ensure the impact has social equity benefits as well as environmental and economic value. Combining green stormwater infrastructure into park retrofits and new park development with a goal of increasing social equity can help ensure that open space is used to its full potential by providing multiple environmental and social benefits and helping cities grow or revitalize more equitably. Creating new highperformance public spaces by adding green infrastructure elements to existing and new parks is not without social and economic impacts. In some cases, such infrastructure can contribute to environmental gentrification. Care must be taken beginning in the initial conceptual design, through planning stages, that these investments do not lead to gentrification that negatively impacts existing communities. This Resource Guide for Planning, Designing and Implementing Green Infrastructure in Parks builds on the success of park and green infrastructure initiatives throughout the United States. It provides basic principles, inspiration, and ideas that can help planners, designers, and decision-makers equitably integrate green stormwater infrastructure into parks and park systems across the country.
2 | NATIONAL RECREATION AND PARK ASSOCIATION INTRODUCTION HOW TO USE THIS GUIDE This resource guide provides a starting point for park and recreation professionals, planners, and designers interested in integrating green stormwater infrastructure concepts and practices into park design, construction, and maintenance. The purpose of this guide is to help professionals and communities design and maintain greener, cleaner, more resilient parks that maximize benefits to their communities. Green Stormwater Infrastructure includes descriptions and resources related to common types of green stormwater infrastructure practices in parks. Understanding the Context explores different park environments, detailing the opportunities and challenges of implementing green stormwater infrastructure in a variety of park contexts. The final section – Best Practices – provides best practice models for the design, construction, and maintenance of green stormwater infrastructure in parks. Before undertaking any green stormwater infrastructure project, park agencies must assess their capacity for financing, designing, building, and maintaining these projects, as well as conducting thorough outreach and engagement. If there are resource gaps within agencies, other government agencies or existing partners may be able to contribute. If not, external contractors may be needed. RECREATION ECONOMIC EDUCATION RELAXATION WATERQUALITY RESILIENCE HEAT ISLANDEFFECTS FLOODRISKS WILDLIFEHABITAT AIRQUALITY GREENJOBS GROWTH COMMUNITY LOWERURBAN MANAGE High performance landscapes with green infrastructure provide the maximum amount of co-benefits to communities
GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE RESOURCE GUIDE | 3 Two definitions of green infrastructure commonly apply to park planning: green infrastructure, and green stormwater infrastructure.1 Green infrastructure refers to an interconnected network of open space consisting of natural areas and other green features that protects ecosystem functions and contribute to clean air and water.2 Regional planning approaches such as the conservation of large tracts of open land fall into this category. These play an important role in water resource management and the creation of healthy environments. Green stormwater infrastructure refers to using or mimicking natural processes to prevent, capture, and/or filter stormwater runoff.3 This guide focuses on the application of green stormwater infrastructure to park properties, as it provides a more specific design and management framework with more quantifiable water quality benefits. Many cities have begun to integrate green stormwater infrastructure into their park systems. A 2014 survey by the Trust for Public Land (TPL) found that more than 5,000 acres of parkland in 48 major cities had been modified in some way to control stormwater. The projects were many and varied. The survey identified projects in 23 states ranging from 1 to 887 acres.4 With community parks containing hundreds of thousands of acres across the country, there are a multitude of opportunities for integrating green infrastructure into park systems nationwide. GREEN STORMWATER INFRASTRUCTURE A constructed wetland built in a community park in a formerly industrialized area of Chattanooga, TN collects and cleans runoff before it flows into the Tennessee River. Jedidiah Gordon-Moran
4 | NATIONAL RECREATION AND PARK ASSOCIATION COMMON GREEN STORMWATER INFRASTRUCTURE PRACTICES FOR PARK SETTINGS Common green stormwater infrastructure practices are defined below as adapted from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Green Infrastructure website.5 BIORETENTION is a versatile stormwater treatment system that collects, filters, and infiltrates stormwater runoff from impervious surfaces during small storm events and allows it to infiltrate into subsurface soils and evapotranspirate, the movement of water from the land to the atmosphere by evaporation and by transpiration from plants. Bioretention areas are depressed, flat-bottomed cells of various shapes and configurations that include plants and an engineered soil mix and may include an underdrain. Their flexible design features, relatively small footprint, and ability to be adjusted to accommodate utilities and other conflicts allow them to easily fit into community landscapes. Common variants include rain gardens, micro-bioretention areas, stormwater planters, and tree box filters. Bioswales are another variant detailed below. BIOSWALES are bioretention channels that collect runoff from small drainage areas. Bioswales differ from other bioretention practices in that they are designed to be conveyance treatment devices, not storage devices. Water does not pond and slowly infiltrate in bioswales. Instead, treatment and retention is provided as stormwater moves from one place to another. As linear features, they are particularly well suited to being placed along streets, sidewalks, and parking lots. CONSTRUCTED WETLANDSmimic the functions of natural wetlands to capture runoff, improve water quality, and provide wildlife habitat. Constructed wetlands filter stormwater by slowing down water flow and trapping sediments and pollutants. Plants unique to wetland habitats take up pollutants and foster the growth of microorganisms that remove pollutants from water. Wetlands can be a costeffective, practical approach to treating polluted runoff. However, they can generally only be built on uplands and outside floodplains to avoid damaging natural aquatic ecosystems.6 IMPERVIOUS SURFACE DISCONNECTIONS involve directing runoff from rooftops or other small impervious areas (such as a hard turf area, a small parking lot, or section of roadway) into a pervious area or another stormwater best management practice that infiltrates, filters, and/or captures the runoff. Disconnecting downspouts from the storm drain system is a simple, effective green infrastructure practice that is applicable to a wide variety of site conditions and development designs. GREEN STORMWATER INFRASTRUCTURE Montgomery County Department of Environmental Protection Steven Vance Low Impact Development Center, Inc.
GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE RESOURCE GUIDE | 5 GREEN STORMWATER INFRASTRUCTURE GREEN ROOFSuse soil and plants in place of traditional roof material to enable rainfall infiltration and the evapotranspiration of stored water. Green roofs can be cost-effective in dense urban areas where land values are high. There are two common types of green roofs: extensive and intensive. Extensive green roofs typically have a growing medium of 3 to 4 inches, are commonly planted with sedum (a hardy groundcover), require less irrigation, and have low maintenance requirements. Intensive green roofs have up to 12 inches of growing medium and can support shrubs and trees. The ability to maintain larger plant material also introduces a need for constant irrigation and a more regular maintenance schedule.7 Green roofs are easily accommodated during building design. Retrofitting an existing roof requires structural evaluation and calculations. PERMEABLE PAVEMENTS infiltrate, treat, and/or store rainwater where it falls. Permeable pavements provide an alternative to conventional pavement systems and can be made of pervious concrete, porous asphalt, or permeable interlocking pavers. Permeable pavement can be used in a variety of settings and is good for walking, biking, parking areas, and low-trafficked roads without heavy truck use. Permeable pavements typically include an underdrain system that prevents the pavement from flooding when rainfall exceeds infiltration. This practice can be particularly cost-effective where land values are high or flooding or icing is a problem. Permeable pavements must be swept and vacuumed regularly to prevent the pores from clogging, which prevents infiltration. RAINWATER HARVESTING involves collecting or storing rainwater for later use, such as for irrigating lawns or gardens.8 A typical rain barrel is sized to hold between 40-75 gallons of rainwater stored above grade; cisterns can hold up to 10,000 gallons or more of rainwater and can be stored above or below grade. Both systems can help reduce a building’s overall potable water usage. To be most effective, their water should be used up between rain events to maximize water capture with each storm. STREAM RESTORATION involves restoring or “daylighting” streams and channels by removing artificial barriers (such as pipes, channelization, or steep grades) and returning them to natural conditions, creating wetlands, providing appropriate vegetation along banks, and restoring natural habitat of streams and non-tidal wetlands.9 Roger Foley Low Impact Development Center, Inc. Low Impact Development Center, Inc. Arlington County, VA
6 | NATIONAL RECREATION AND PARK ASSOCIATION GREEN STORMWATER INFRASTRUCTURE URBAN TREE CANOPY reduces and slows stormwater by intercepting precipitation in leaves and branches. Tree roots stabilize soil; trees also take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen. Many cities have set tree canopy goals to restore some of the benefits of trees that were lost when the areas were developed. Homeowners, businesses, and community groups can participate in planting and maintaining trees throughout the urban environment. LAND CONSERVATION: The water quality and flooding impacts of stormwater can be addressed by protecting open spaces and sensitive natural areas within and adjacent to a city or town (including upstream watersheds) while providing recreational opportunities for residents. Open spaces provide natural stormwater filtration and convey water more slowly than concrete drainage systems. Natural areas that should be a focus of this effort include riparian areas, wetlands, and undeveloped hillsides. VEGETATION MANAGEMENT: Comprehensive landscape design practices like proper plant selection and arrangement; the use of plants for weed control and surface stabilization; and good construction practices can help minimize maintenance costs and improve water quality. For example, selecting native plants that are water-efficient minimizes irrigation; while pest-resistant plants and turf grasses minimize the use of pesticides.10 Converting under-utilized turf areas to less maintenance-intensive forms of landscape can yield significant environmental and cost benefits while still providing attractive settings. VEGETATED BUFFERS: Healthy, vegetated buffers adjacent to waterways improve water quality and overall stream health by filtering and slowing stormwater runoff. They also provide additional benefits, such as connecting natural areas, providing important wildlife habitat, and providing areas for passive recreation trails (where compatible). Low Impact Development Center, Inc. Steve Droter/ Chesapeake Bay Program Panama City Beach Park and Recreation
GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE RESOURCE GUIDE | 7 Parks can play a central role in providing opportunities for green stormwater infrastructure. A park assessment and pre-planning process driven by a strong community engagement program is necessary to ensure that the final plan is responsive to the community’s diverse needs.11 As discussed in the APA Briefing Paper: Green Infrastructure and Park System Planning,12 area-wide assessments conducted during the park system planning process can identify underserved areas in need of additional park and green space resources. Once sites are selected for improvements, a more in-depth analysis can reveal demographic trends and existing stakeholder groups that may be targeted for further outreach during design. Initial park assessments and pre-planning help to identify resources that may be needed throughout outreach, design, construction, and maintenance. They help determine what projects are feasible given existing resources and where expanding capacity can help achieve stormwater management and social equity goals. The choice of the green stormwater infrastructure methods employed will depend on the: • Park context or location where the practice will be installed; • Existing site conditions such as hydrology, hydraulics, soils, and vegetation; and • Available funding PARK CONTEXT There is a growing need for parks to accommodate a variety of activities, purposes, and user groups. Parks are increasingly being designed or redesigned to allow for flexible, multi-purpose program space. This resource guide identifies eight common park amenities where green stormwater infrastructure practices can be integrated to provide ecological, aesthetic, and programmatic enhancements. The list is not exhaustive but includes elements commonly found in parks that can inform decisions related to siting green stormwater infrastructure. ACTIVE RECREATION AREAS – Generally, active recreational activities are those that require specific, dedicated infrastructure and space, such as sports fields, golf courses, and playgrounds. Active recreation is encouraged by providing activity-specific equipment that can be tailored to different themes and/or age groups.13 Active recreation areas often require significant financial investment and ongoing management and maintenance. They can be designed or retrofitted to serve stormwater management purposes, often without impeding recreational use. For example, a playing field can be designed to provide sub-surface stormwater treatment, while hard courts and sidewalks can be constructed with permeable pavement.14 Bioretention facilities, plants, and trees can be installed around play areas to capture runoff. Playgrounds also provide opportunities to educate children about stormwater issues.15 PRE-PLANNING AND ASSESSMENT
8 | NATIONAL RECREATION AND PARK ASSOCIATION PRE-PLANNING AND ASSESSMENT PASSIVE RECREATION AREAS AND TRAILS – Passive recreation areas are generally minimally developed or undisturbed natural areas that allow for nonspecific uses requiring little dedicated infrastructure or space. They can provide for recreation such as walking/running, fishing, or canoeing.16 Parkland forests serve as natural infiltration zones; bioretention practices such as rain gardens can be installed as part of a wildlife habitat or in tandem with a park’s environmental education initiative.17 Park trails are designed for their intended users. Some are multi-use; others are meant only for a single use (such as bicyclists or horseback riders). Park trails provide opportunities for recreation and enjoyment. They can be the focal point of a park or greenway or connect parks to nearby communities18. They can also provide access to natural resources and connections throughout communities while preserving ecological functions that naturally manage stormwater, such as raised boardwalks through wetlands. Adding trees, native plants, and bioretention areas along trails can create demonstration projects that educate trail users about stormwater issues. Trails are also good candidates for permeable pavement or other pervious surfaces.19, 20 NATURAL AREAS – Also referred to as “Natural Resource Areas,” natural areas are “lands set aside for preservation of significant natural resources, remnant landscapes, open space, and visual aesthetics/buffering”.21 Natural areas are designed for minimal recreational use, and vary in size depending on the existing resource. Natural areas in parks may include wetlands, water bodies, forests, geologic features, trails, or interpretive exhibits.22 Many of these areas provide a “natural” form of green stormwater infrastructure in parks that can reduce/absorb runoff from developed areas. Stream and shorelines are potential candidates for restoration projects. PARK ENTRANCES – Park entrances are commonly developed to draw attention and invite the public in. The use of an attractive green stormwater infrastructure practice at the entrance and/or the park perimeter provides multiple functions, such as creating an inviting entrance, providing a highly visible educational component, and treating polluted stormwater runoff not just from within the park but potentially from the surrounding roadway. PARKING AREAS –Parking areas provide many opportunities for reducing stormwater runoff by integrating green stormwater infrastructure into their design. Replacing traditional asphalt with permeable paving materials can promote infiltration of stormwater runoff. Bioswales or bioretention cells can capture or slow runoff and can be installed in existing or expanded medians or parking lot edges. Planting trees and native vegetation around and within parking lots can help slow runoff while reducing the heat island effect, making the park environment more enjoyable for pedestrians.23
GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE RESOURCE GUIDE | 9 PRE-PLANNING AND ASSESSMENT SITE CONSIDERATIONS The small footprint of many green stormwater infrastructure practices enables them to be easily integrated into community parks. Well-designed green stormwater infrastructure practices blend seamlessly into the existing landscape. They can also be a visual reference point or a focal point for interpretation or education. Green stormwater infrastructure may be incorporated into the design of new parks or incorporated into retrofit or redevelopment projects. Including green stormwater infrastructure in a new park development or redevelopment project at the earliest planning stage can significantly reduce the total cost of planning and installation. Retrofitting existing sites with green infrastructure through activities such as replacing impervious surfaces or the greening of previously grey infrastructure involves constructing a project in a park that is already developed and is not currently planned for redevelopment. This typically costs more. However, a retrofit may reduce water quality impacts, solve a localized flooding problem, or add a demonstration or education component. In these cases, the cost of the retrofit can be reduced by integrating it with another community, infrastructure, or capital improvement projects.24, 25 Various site conditions have an impact on determining the most appropriate green stormwater infrastructure practices available, or how a specific practice must be adapted to meet the physical constraints of the site. These include climate, soil conditions, space availability, and the location of sewer, stormwater, water, and other utilities. Site assessment checklists like those available from the Oregon State University Extension Service26 or Rutgers University27 can be helpful tools for assessing a site. They can also be used as starting points for tailoring a checklist specific to a park. Low Impact Development Center, Inc. Permeable pavers in the Brookside Gardens parking lot in Wheaton, MD
10 | NATIONAL RECREATION AND PARK ASSOCIATION PRE-PLANNING AND ASSESSMENT CONTEXT-SENSITIVE DESIGN – The size and shape of existing parkland or land slated for park redevelopment may affect the amount of land available for stormwater management. Identifying any areas that should be avoided is an important step in assessing the site’s capacity for green stormwater infrastructure (see existing site features below). Allowing water to infiltrate into the soil can be challenging when space is limited. Integrating green stormwater infrastructure practices into existing landscape features, such as placing bioretention areas or bioswales alongside medians or parking areas, serves multiple purposes.28 EXISTING SITE FEATURES – Utilities, structures, mature trees, and other existing natural resources and rightsof-way can impact the amount of space available to integrate green stormwater infrastructure practices. This is particularly true with existing park or infill sites. Utilities that may be buried below-ground include sewer, water, electrical, gas, and fiber optic communication lines. It is important to locate these features early in the design process to identify and coordinate with the responsible agencies. Adjacent structures and buildings can also have an impact. Tall buildings in urban settings can block the sun or adversely impact wind, noise, and odors.29 Depth to the water table, average annual rainfall and temperature, and the location of wetlands, floodPark Pride A two-acre detention pond was created as the centerpiece of an urban park in Atlanta’s historic Fourth Ward Park
GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE RESOURCE GUIDE | 11 PRE-PLANNING AND ASSESSMENT plains, riparian areas, and topography are all common features to consider. Cultural and historic elements must be considered along with other existing site features. SOILS – Existing soil types and textures can impact infiltration rates (i.e., the ability for stormwater to soak down into the soil). Clay soils and urban soils, for example, have low infiltration rates. Common characteristics of urban soils include high soil compaction, low organic matter content, and soil contamination.30 The presence of existing pavement, bare spots, scouring, exposed/above ground roots, construction debris, and the quality of existing vegetation can all provide visual clues of soil conditions. These observations can be verified with professional laboratory and field tests. Such factors do not rule out green stormwater infrastructure, but they do need to be kept in mind during planning. Techniques such as soil remediation or amending the soil, de-compacting soils, and minimizing clogging of pores can improve performance and infiltration.31 Your local Soil Conservation District (SCD) representative may be helpful in assessing soil characteristics. VACANT LANDS AND BROWNFIELDS – Vacant sites and brownfields (land previously used for industrial or commercial purposes where the presence of contaminants is likely) provide viable options for park development projects. However, care should be taken to ensure that contaminants or waste materials in the soil are abated without increasing the risk of groundwater contamination. Visual examinations of the site should be coupled with a thorough examination of historic property and environmental records. An environmental investigation of the property is typically required prior to property transfers. This may include collecting and testing surface and subsurface soil samples and groundwater samples.32 In some cases, brownfield remediation can provide motivation and funding for park development. In Atlanta, Georgia, Historic Fourth Ward Park was built on a former industrial area, and uses a high-capacity stormwater detention pond in addition to smaller green stormwater infrastructure practices to treat polluted runoff and reduce flooding. Park development included numerous play areas and trails connecting to other amenities around the city.33 ACCESS TO WATER FOR IRRIGATION – The need or potential need for occasional irrigation of green stormwater infrastructure plantings can be limiting factors for arid and semiarid regions. In addition, new plants in need of establishment may require supplemental irrigation. It is important to be aware of water access on the intended site and how to meet these needs upfront. Irrigation requirements can be reduced by using native, drought-tolerant plants, amending the soil, proper mulching, utilizing rainwater harvested on-site with rain barrels or cisterns, and proper maintenance.34 Consult local and state regulations, if applicable, for restrictions on water harvesting related to issues such as water-quality, public health concerns, and existing water-rights laws.35 CLIMATIC CONDITIONS – Local climates affect the performance of green stormwater infrastructure installations. Tailoring designs to account for climatic extremes can help avoid negative impacts. For example, cold weather can impact the structural integrity of devices such as permeable pavement. However, with proper siting, material selection, and maintenance, porous asphalt can perform very well in cold climates.36 Green infrastructure practices in arid climates require different types of vegetation than those in more temperate areas, and may be used to address different needs. Green infrastructure may be used to conserve water or to stabilize soil to prevent erosion and reduce drought susceptibility.37 Green stormwater infrastructure can aid in groundwater recharge, which may provide an additional source of funding.
12 | NATIONAL RECREATION AND PARK ASSOCIATION PRE-PLANNING AND ASSESSMENT RESILIENCE – Environmental resiliency, as defined by EPA, refers to “minimizing environmental risks associated with disasters, quickly returning critical environmental and ecological services to functionality after a disaster while applying this learning process to reduce vulnerabilities and risks to future incidents”.38 Susceptibility to extreme weather events, especially flooding or torrential rainfall, can significantly impact the design of green stormwater infrastructure. Parks in these areas must be constructed of sturdy materials while possibly accommodating flood water and/or contributing to flood mitigation. Parks can be a viable development option in flood-prone areas where buildings would suffer damage. They can be designed to be flexible and sturdy enough to accommodate large amounts of water. The Hunters Point South Waterfront Park in Queens, New York, exemplifies a resilient park that withstood a storm surge during Hurricane Sandy in 2012 while slowing the flow of damaging flood waters.39 Natural areas that are conserved to provide flooding, water quality, and/or wildlife benefits can be used as parks and areas for passive recreation. Examples include Milwaukee, Wisconsin’s Greenseams conservation program40 or the India Basin Shoreline Park in San Francisco, California.41 EXISTING PARK USES – Existing parks may not be conducive to some types of green stormwater infrastructure devices. Compromises between the most effective stormwater treatment devices and community needs may affect design choices. These compromises may include reducing the footprint of installations, relocating them, or locating them underground to avoid conflicts with above-ground uses. For example, park users may object to sports fields being turned into gardens or ponds.42 On the other hand, these “compromises” to accommodate park uses can be mutually beneficial. This was the case in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, where park planners addressed community feedback by redesigning the plans for McKinley Park43 to modify the green stormwater infrastructure. This design change created even more opportunities for green stormwater infrastructure than was previously available and increased the stormwater capture potential. Athletic fields in Atlanta, Georgia and installation of a synthetic turf field over a large storage cistern in Alexandria, Virginia show the possibilities for green infrastructure in existing parks. Hunter’s Point South Waterfront Park in New York City incorporates the site’s industrial remnants in the green infrastructure features, such as this rail garden.
GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE RESOURCE GUIDE | 13 PRE-PLANNING AND ASSESSMENT FUNDING CONSIDERATIONS A 2017 National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA) member survey found that a lack of funding is the greatest barrier that keeps park agencies from implementing green infrastructure and sustainability projects.44 Federal, state, and private grant programs can help seed pilot programs, but long-term funding relies on public-private partnerships and access to upfront capital. The issue of funding is particularly burdensome to distressed or underserved communities. One method park agencies have used to fund green infrastructure projects is to leverage the co-benefits they provide. Many local governments are required to implement stormwater management in response to a National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)45 municipal separate storm sewer system (MS4) permit. Other legal and regulatory mandates such as a combined sewer overflow (CSO)46 consent decree or a total maximum daily load (TMDL)47 allocation may also drive stormwater implementation. This can open up partnership opportunities between park agencies and water utilities or other locally regulated entities to implement green stormwater infrastructure practices48, 49. Two EPA resources that provide examples are Getting to Green: Paying for Green Infrastructure and Green Infrastructure in Parks: A Guide to Collaboration, Funding, and Community Engagement.50, 51 The EPA also maintains a Water Finance Clearinghouse that provides information on available funding sources for stormwater and other water infrastructure projects as well as reports and information on available financing mechanisms and approaches.52 Park projects in underserved areas targeted for revitalization can spur community and economic revitalization, providing opportunities to coordinate with local departments of housing and economic development as well as the private sector. Green infrastructure enhancements within the public right-of-way surrounding parks and the incorporation of recreational benefits provide opportunities to coordinate and co-fund projects with local departments of transportation.53 Depending on a project’s expense, securing the necessary funding will typically involve a scan of a variety of sources. Opportunities to leverage funding from and with other agencies will depend on its co-benefits. Co-benefits can include additional environmental benefits (such as pollinator gardens, wetland protection, and flood mitigation). They may also include active and traditional transportation projects, green schoolyard retrofits, and urban revitalization projects implemented in conjunction with Business Improvement Districts (BIDs) or other public/private partnerships. Additional information on funding considerations and options is provided in the APA Briefing Paper: Financing Green Infrastructure Projects.54
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GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE RESOURCE GUIDE | 15 BEST PRACTICES Parks are a critical component of green infrastructure networks as they provide ideal locations to incorporate green stormwater infrastructure practices that manage stormwater, improve equity, and maximize community benefits. The information presented here is a collection of green stormwater infrastructure best practices employed in parks and greenspaces across the United States. These practices are intended to help steer and promote the development and installation of green stormwater infrastructure projects within parks. These practices are best utilized in a system-wide approach. Ensure Parks Staff and Contractors are Trained Keep the Public Informed and Involved Create Career Pathways Ensure Effective Operation and Maintenance Engage the Community Incorporate Projects into Environmental Programming Involve a Multi-Disciplinary Team Listen to and Empower the Community Communicate the Benefits Support Public Health Establish a Demonstration Project Design for Equity and Inclusivity “Biddable” and “Buildable” Designs Plan for Connectivity and Accessibility BEST PRACTICES
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GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE RESOURCE GUIDE | 17 BEST PRACTICES SITE DESIGN Involve a Multi-Disciplinary Team ARCHITECT ENGINEER COMMUNITY MEMBER PARKS DEPARTMENT Listen to and Empower the Community Communicate the Benefits Rain Garden Support Public Health Dialogue sessions, public meetings, visioning sessions, and engaging the community in the design is an important element in improving beneficial environmental and social outcomes in underserved communities. (APA, 2007a; APA, 2007b). Establish a Demonstration Project Design for Equity and Inclusivity “Biddable” and “Buildable” Designs Plan for Connectivity and Accessibility The design phase should involve a multi-disciplinary team in a participatory process to identify community needs and develop a well-informed, community supported vision for the project. The multiple benefits green infrastructure can provide to the community can be highlighted and communicated to the community through continued and meaningful engagement and demonstration projects. These steps will lead to a detailed plan that can be actualized and that considers equitable access to the site, both which are critical to a successful project. 55, 56
18 | NATIONAL RECREATION AND PARK ASSOCIATION BEST PRACTICES: SITE DESIGN BEST PRACTICE: INVOLVE A MULTI-DISCIPLINARY TEAM DESCRIPTION: Successful development and implementation of green stormwater infrastructure practices in park settings requires carefully balancing and addressing multiple agency and community goals. Finding the right balance can be challenging. A strong project team should involve members knowledgeable in the design, construction, long-term maintenance, recreational, educational, and community engagement value of green stormwater infrastructure. This may include: • A park planner to provide input on plans, designs, and materials appropriate for parks • A landscape architect familiar with green stormwater infrastructure to give input on location, plantings, planning strategies, and other choices • A water resource engineer with experience focused on the design, monitoring, and evaluation of green stormwater infrastructure to prepare or review engineered designs • A construction specialist to provide feedback on construction constraints and challenges • Facilities maintenance personnel knowledgeable about operations and maintenance • Community and education outreach specialists to engage and gather input from community members • Other municipal or county agency representatives with permitting authority (if a construction or development permit) or other specialties required for the project • Community members to communicate their needs and desires STRATEGIES: • Ensure the project leader has experience with the design and construction of green stormwater infrastructure projects. • If the project team’s experience is limited, seek input and/or review from planning, design, construction, and maintenance professionals from other agencies, local universities, extension agencies, or other sources who can help troubleshoot problems. • Establish clear roles and responsibilities for each team member; prepare a memorandum of understanding or some other partnership agreements between the park agency and other responsible parties to lay out how each will work together to build and maintain the green infrastructure project.57 • Identify the most pressing problem to be addressed – both from a stormwater perspective and from the perspective of other participants. • Involve Friends of Park groups or community partner to help raise funds, identify stakeholders, or for other expertise they might bring to the project • Authentically engage and collaborate with residents and community representatives to ensure that the project serves the interests of the whole community. EXAMPLES: • In 2016, the City of Austin, Texas, adopted the South Central Waterfront Vision Framework Plan to guide public and private development of an 118-acre area along Lady Bird Lake, just south of downtown. The City’s Urban Design Division sought numerous outside resources and formed diverse partnerships to help
GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE RESOURCE GUIDE | 19 BEST PRACTICES: SITE DESIGN develop the plan. This district-scale plan received input from the American Institute of Architects’ Sustainable Design Assessment Team, the Sustainable Places Project, made possible by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, and the Texas Urban Futures Lab, an initiative of the University of Texas School of Architecture. In a later stage, the City won technical assistance through the EPA’s “Greening of America’s Capitals” program. This allowed them to bring in landscape architecture and urban design firms to further assist with specific designs for parks, streetscapes, and other green infrastructure features. City government representatives contributed as part of a Technical Advisory Group. These included the Transportation Department, Water Utility, Capital Planning, Economic Development, Office of Sustainability, Parks and Recreation, Public Works, and Watershed Protection Department.58 • In 2009, Seattle Public Utilities, along with an extensive team of professionals and stakeholders, completed the Thornton Creek Water Quality Channel stream restoration project in a densely populated area of Seattle, providing much-needed public green space. This integrated team included numerous government departments, landscape architects, maintenance staff, ecologists and soil specialists, structural, civil, and electrical engineers, hydraulic modelers, artists, and organized citizen stakeholders. The restored stream provides numerous benefits, including pedestrian links than connect transit stops, wildlife habitat and accompanying educational signs, improved water quality, and a revitalized real estate market.59 RESOURCES: • National Recreation and Park Association: Green Infrastructure in Parks: Small-Scale, Low-Cost Green Stormwater Management Projects for Parks and Public Lands (recorded webinar). • Water Environment Federation: Multidisciplinary approach, community engagement for green infrastructure (and related book: Green Infrastructure Implementation.)60 • EPA: Green Infrastructure in Parks: A Guide to Collaboration, Community Engagement and Funding. BEST PRACTICE: LISTEN TO AND EMPOWER THE COMMUNITY DESCRIPTION: It is important to engage community members such as residents, businesses, and community organizations early and often in the planning, design, and implementation process. Involving stakeholders at the beginning is the best way to secure support. Incorporate their ideas into the design, and tailor projects to meet their needs. This includes addressing equity through engagement of residents of underserved communities (see Ann Froschauer/USFWS A stream restoration project in Seattle, WA benefited from the oversight of a multi-disciplinary team.
20 | NATIONAL RECREATION AND PARK ASSOCIATION Best Practice: Design for Equity and Inclusivity). Green stormwater infrastructure projects can transform the look and feel of a community. In downtown where space is particularly valuable, it is also important to ensure that selected practices are designed to meet multiple goals. STRATEGIES: • Engage the community through operational staff who interact with the community daily (via comment boxes, conversations). • Identify an individual, individuals, or organization to lead efforts to organize stakeholders—a “local champion committed to improving a neighborhood, city, or region’s quality of life and sustainability”.61 • Set a regular meeting schedule to keep stakeholders informed of the progress. • Utilize tools such as formalized policies and frameworks for engagement to guide outreach in an inclusive direction and keep the design adaptive. • Use visuals and key messaging to frame the conversation. • Provide data and explain project benefits and the perceived and real drawbacks in a way the community understands so that they can make informed decisions. • Hold meetings at times and places that make it possible for all members of the community to participate. • Form partnerships to maintain momentum for the plan during a long implementation period. • Utilize various ways to engage stakeholders, including charrettes and town meetings, to ensure different viewpoints are incorporated and projects provide long-term benefits such as jobs and volunteer opportunities. • Consider upfront how to address language barriers, communication issues, cultural barriers, or seemingly irreconcilable differences of opinion. • Consider the possibility of gentrification and involve partners such as the local Housing Authority to take necessary measures to maintain the community. EXAMPLES: • In 2005, the nonprofit organizationAmigos de los Rios introduced an ambitious plan known as the Emerald Necklace Expanded Vision Plan to “link the San Gabriel and Santa Monica Mountains with the Pacific Ocean”62 through a network of parks, trails, and restored waterways. When complete, it is expected to link more than 1,500 acres of parks and open spaces around Rio Hondo, San Gabriel, and the lower Los Angeles Rivers.63 One big challenge has been the large number of municipalities and unincorporated areas of the county that make up the plan area – many of which are already competing for limited investmentdollars. Amigos de los Rios has served as a much-needed liaison between the local communities and public agencies. The organization has been successful bringing youth into the design process, organizing volunteers for regularly-scheduled stewardship and cleanup events, BEST PRACTICES: SITE DESIGN Interpretive sign of native plants at Lashbrook Park in El Monte, CA Amigos de los Rios
GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE RESOURCE GUIDE | 21 BEST PRACTICES: SITE DESIGN providing educational opportunities, and implementing green infrastructure and park projects in underserved neighborhoods. These efforts have helped build and sustain the interest of community members, public agencies, and officials.64 A total of 12 park projects have been completed to date.65 • The Municipal Art Society of New York (MAS) created an interactive map of underused publicly-owned or leased land in New York City.66 This tool makes it easy for anyone to see where there is potential for land to be repurposed, and whether it is located within a floodplain, in an underserved area, or in a low-income community. Making this information publicly available in a user-friendly format can help small organizations and individual residents become more educated and engaged about land use issues in their own communities. RESOURCES: • American Planning Association: How Cities Use Parks for Community Engagement. • Environmental Protection Agency: Enhancing Sustainable Communities with Green Infrastructure • Environmental Protection Agency: Getting in Step: Engaging Stakeholders in your Watershed • National Park Service: A Toolkit for Engaging Communities and Fostering Relationships BEST PRACTICE: UNDERSTAND AND COMMUNICATE THE BENEFITS DESCRIPTION: Green stormwater infrastructure installations in parks can provide a multitude of benefits beyond those associated with improved water quality and an improved environment. These include social benefits such as increased proximity to nature and community empowerment67 and health benefits such as better air quality, improved physical activity, and reduced stress levels.68 These benefits can be particularly significant for underserved and economically disadvantaged communities with less access to green infrastructure.69 In addition, while parks that do implement green infrastructure and other sustainability measures indicate that cost savings are a driver, only a small percent measure those cost savings.70 Educating community leaders and members on green stormwater infrastructure benefits can lead to stronger advocates. STRATEGIES: • Seek outside expertise and take advantage of online tools like the USDA Forest Service’s iTree Tools and the EPA’s Green Infrastructure Modeling Toolkit to calculate the multiple benefits of applied practices (both which have helpful online tutorials). • Explain the benefits and the perceived and real drawbacks of the intended program or project in a way that community understands so that informed decisions can be made. • Monetize the benefits of green infrastructure when possible. • Use visuals and key messaging to frame the conversation. EXAMPLES: • Toledo, Ohio sits in a low-lying area known as the Great Black Swamp near the southwestern portion of Lake Erie. The city is highly impervious and has long suffered from localized flooding issues. More frequent, intense rain events have led to an uptick in basement floodings, property damage, water quality issues, and strained budgets.71 In 2014, the city engaged citizens in preparing the Greater Toledo: Going Beyond Green Regional Sustainability Plan.72 The community worked with the Digital Coast Partnership,
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